Humans are not from Earth: a scientific evaluation of the evidence (2nd Edition)

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H. sapiens (the adjective sapiens is Latin for "wise" or "intelligent") emerged in Africa around 300,000 years ago, likely derived from H.heidelbergensis or a related lineage. [109] [110] In September 2019, scientists reported the computerized determination, based on 260 CT scans, of a virtual skull shape of the last common human ancestor to modern humans/ H. sapiens, representative of the earliest modern humans, and suggested that modern humans arose between 260,000 and 350,000 years ago through a merging of populations in East and South Africa. [111] [112] The first fossils of Homo erectus were discovered by Dutch physician Eugene Dubois in 1891 on the Indonesian island of Java. He originally named the material Anthropopithecus erectus (1892–1893, considered at this point as a chimpanzee-like fossil primate) and Pithecanthropus erectus (1893–1894, changing his mind as of based on its morphology, which he considered to be intermediate between that of humans and apes). [66] Years later, in the 20th century, the German physician and paleoanthropologist Franz Weidenreich (1873–1948) compared in detail the characters of Dubois' Java Man, then named Pithecanthropus erectus, with the characters of the Peking Man, then named Sinanthropus pekinensis. Weidenreich concluded in 1940 that because of their anatomical similarity with modern humans it was necessary to gather all these specimens of Java and China in a single species of the genus Homo, the species H.erectus. [67] [68] a b c d e f Reich, David; Green, Richard E.; Kircher, Martin; etal. (December 23, 2010). "Genetic history of an archaic hominin group from Denisova Cave in Siberia". Nature. 468 (7327): 1053–1060. Bibcode: 2010Natur.468.1053R. doi: 10.1038/nature09710. hdl: 10230/25596. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 4306417. PMID 21179161.

Mixon, Bobbie; Ehardt, Carolyn; Hammer, Michael (September 6, 2011). "Evolution's Past Is Modern Human's Present" (Press release). National Science Foundation. Press Release 11-181. Archived from the original on December 17, 2014 . Retrieved April 20, 2015. Genetic evidence has also been employed to compare species within the genus Homo, investigating gene flow between early modern humans and Neanderthals, and to enhance the understanding of the early human migration patterns and splitting dates. By comparing the parts of the genome that are not under natural selection and which therefore accumulate mutations at a fairly steady rate, it is possible to reconstruct a genetic tree incorporating the entire human species since the last shared ancestor. A number of other changes have also characterized the evolution of humans, among them an increased reliance on vision rather than smell (highly reduced olfactory bulb); a longer juvenile developmental period and higher infant dependency; [178] a smaller gut and small, misaligned teeth; faster basal metabolism; [179] loss of body hair; [180] an increase in The first debates about the nature of human evolution arose between Thomas Henry Huxley and Richard Owen. Huxley argued for human evolution from apes by illustrating many of the similarities and differences between humans and other apes, and did so particularly in his 1863 book Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature. Many of Darwin's early supporters (such as Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Lyell) did not initially agree that the origin of the mental capacities and the moral sensibilities of humans could be explained by natural selection, though this later changed. Darwin applied the theory of evolution and sexual selection to humans in his 1871 book The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. [221] First fossils [ edit ]O'Neil, Dennis. "Early Modern Homo sapiens". Evolution of Modern Humans: A Survey of the Biological and Cultural Evolution of Archaic and Modern Homo sapiens (Tutorial). San Marcos, CA: Palomar College. Archived from the original on April 30, 2015 . Retrieved April 20, 2015. The immediate survival advantage of encephalization is difficult to discern, as the major brain changes from Homo erectus to Homo heidelbergensis were not accompanied by major changes in technology. It has been suggested that the changes were mainly social and behavioural, including increased empathic abilities, [153] [154] increases in size of social groups, [147] [155] [156] and increased behavioral plasticity. [157] Humans are unique in the ability to acquire information through social transmission and adapt that information. [158] The emerging field of cultural evolution studies human sociocultural change from an evolutionary perspective. [159] Evolution of the shape, size, and contours of the human ( Homo) skull [160] [161] [a] [164] [d] [2] [166] [167] [168] [169] [103] [170] [171] Sexual dimorphism [ edit ] Up until the genetic evidence became available, there were two dominant models for the dispersal of modern humans. The multiregional hypothesis proposed that the genus Homo contained only a single interconnected population as it does today (not separate species), and that its evolution took place worldwide continuously over the last couple of million years. This model was proposed in 1988 by Milford H. Wolpoff. [243] [244] In contrast, the "out of Africa" model proposed that modern H.sapiens speciated in Africa recently (that is, approximately 200,000 years ago) and the subsequent migration through Eurasia resulted in the nearly complete replacement of other Homo species. This model has been developed by Chris Stringer and Peter Andrews. [245] [246] Known H. sapiens migration routes in the Pleistocene

Of course Ar. ramidus differs significantly from bonobos, bonobos having retained a functional canine honing complex. However, the fact that Ar. ramidus shares with bonobos reduced sexual dimorphism, and a more paedomorphic form relative to chimpanzees, suggests that the developmental and social adaptations evident in bonobos may be of assistance in future reconstructions of early hominin social and sexual psychology. In fact the trend towards increased maternal care, female mate selection and self-domestication may have been stronger and more refined in Ar. ramidus than what we see in bonobos. [28] :128 And a 2019 analysis of 11,602 peer-reviewed articles on climate change published in the first seven months of 2019 found scientists have reached 100% agreement on anthropogenic global warming. That research was carried out by a James Lawrence Powell, an American geologist and author of 11books on climate change and Earth science.The species that you and all other living human beings on this planet belong to is Homo sapiens. During a time of dramatic climate change 300,000 years ago, Homo sapiens evolved in Africa. Like other early humans that were living at this time, they gathered and hunted food, and evolved behaviors that helped them respond to the challenges of survival in unstable environments. There are a number of clear anatomical differences between anatomically modern humans (AMH) and Neanderthal specimens, many relating to the superior Neanderthal adaptation to cold environments. Neanderthal surface to volume ratio was even lower than that among modern Inuit populations, indicating superior retention of body heat. Modern humans flourished through ancient supervolcano eruption 74,000 years ago: Modern humans flourished through ancient supervolcano eruption". ScienceDaily. Archived from the original on January 24, 2019 . Retrieved January 24, 2019. Around 50,000 BP, human culture started to evolve more rapidly. The transition to behavioral modernity has been characterized by some as a " Great Leap Forward", [193] or as the "Upper Palaeolithic Revolution", [194] due to the sudden appearance in the archaeological record of distinctive signs of modern behavior and big game hunting. [195] Evidence of behavioral modernity significantly earlier also exists from Africa, with older evidence of abstract imagery, widened subsistence strategies, more sophisticated tools and weapons, and other "modern" behaviors, and many scholars have recently argued that the transition to modernity occurred sooner than previously believed. [47] [196] [197] [198]

There are uncertainties and nuances to discuss in climate science," said Cook. "But the one thing pretty much every scientist agrees upon today is that the warming we're seeing is driven by burning fossil fuels." Why did it take a while to reach this conclusion? Precisely when early humans started to use tools is difficult to determine, because the more primitive these tools are (for example, sharp-edged stones) the more difficult it is to decide whether they are natural objects or human artifacts. [185] There is some evidence that the australopithecines (4 Ma) may have used broken bones as tools, but this is debated. [188] Since Homo sapiens separated from its last common ancestor shared with chimpanzees, human evolution is characterized by a number of morphological, developmental, physiological, behavioral, and environmental changes. [8] Environmental (cultural) evolution discovered much later during the Pleistocene played a significant role in human evolution observed via human transitions between subsistence systems. [115] [8] The most significant of these adaptations are bipedalism, increased brain size, lengthened ontogeny (gestation and infancy), and decreased sexual dimorphism. The relationship between these changes is the subject of ongoing debate. [116] Other significant morphological changes included the evolution of a power and precision grip, a change first occurring in H.erectus. [117] Bipedalism [ edit ] Bipedalism shown by a man and a womanMolecular evidence indicates that the lineage of gibbons diverged from the line of great apes some 18–12mya, and that of orangutans (subfamily Ponginae) [b] diverged from the other great apes at about 12million years; there are no fossils that clearly document the ancestry of gibbons, which may have originated in a so-far-unknown Southeast Asian hominoid population, but fossil proto-orangutans may be represented by Sivapithecus from India and Griphopithecus from Turkey, dated to around 10mya. [27] Homo georgicus, from Georgia, may be an intermediate form between Homo habilis and Homo erectus, [64] or a subspecies of Homo erectus. [65] In the Early Miocene, about 22million years ago, the many kinds of arboreally adapted primitive catarrhines from East Africa suggest a long history of prior diversification. Fossils at 20million years ago include fragments attributed to Victoriapithecus, the earliest Old World monkey. Among the genera thought to be in the ape lineage leading up to 13million years ago are Proconsul, Rangwapithecus, Dendropithecus, Limnopithecus, Nacholapithecus, Equatorius, Nyanzapithecus, Afropithecus, Heliopithecus, and Kenyapithecus, all from East Africa.